Parent-Child Care
Parent-Child Care (PC-CARE) is a parenting program designed to provide brief support to caregivers with children ages 1–10. PC-CARE aims to help caregivers improve relationships with their child and learn new child behavior management strategies. The caregiver and child participate in one pretreatment session, six treatment sessions, and an optional booster session.
During the pretreatment session, the provider gathers information about the caregiver and child and shares information about the purpose of PC-CARE. The provider then conducts a behavioral observation while the caregiver and child play. After the observation, the provider gives the caregiver feedback on the interaction.
During the six treatment sessions, the provider begins by checking in with the caregiver and child to see how they are doing. The provider then offers training on that week’s caregiving skills. For example, providers may discuss topics like the importance of praising and modeling appropriate behavior, how to transition between activities, and strategies for calming a child. The provider then observes the behavior of the caregiver and child during playtime and provides the caregiver with feedback. Next, the provider coaches the caregiver through that week’s caregiving skills while the caregiver practices them with the child. Finally, providers end the session with the caregiver and child by assigning “Daily CARE” homework consisting of a 5-minute play activity for the caregiver and child.
PC-CARE can also be used to meet the needs of caregivers with toddlers (PC-CARE for Toddlers), children with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual developmental disabilities (PC-CARE ASD/IDD), and children with problematic sexual behaviors (PC-CARE PSB). For these populations, providers use materials designed to give caregivers more support for the specific needs of these children. For example, in PC-CARE for Toddlers providers use materials that are developmentally appropriate for younger children and in PC-CARE PSB providers add in discussions about healthy sexual behaviors and body safety rules. The PC-CARE manual provides detailed information about implementing PC-CARE with these populations.
PC-CARE is rated as a promising practice because at least one study achieved a rating of moderate or high on study design and execution and demonstrated a favorable effect on a target outcome.
Date Research Evidence Last Reviewed: Nov 2023
Sources
The following sources informed the program or service description, target population, and program or service delivery and implementation information: the program or service manual, the program or service developer’s website, the California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse for Child Welfare, and the studies reviewed.
This information does not necessarily represent the views of the program or service developers. For more information on how this program or service was reviewed, visit the Review Process page or download the Handbook.
Target Population
PC-CARE is designed to serve caregivers with children ages 1–10. The caregiver should have either custody of or regular visits with the child and be willing and able to participate in the “Daily CARE” activity.
Dosage
Providers typically deliver PC-CARE over seven weekly sessions with one caregiver and one child but can also deliver the program to multiple children or multiple caregivers. Each session lasts 1 hour. Providers conduct a follow-up call with the caregiver 1 month after treatment has ended and can offer an additional booster session at that time.
Location/Delivery Setting
Recommended Locations/Delivery Settings
Providers can deliver PC-CARE in home, hospital, clinic, or community settings.
Location/Delivery Settings Observed in the Research
- Mental Health Center, Treatment Center, Therapist Office
- Hospital/Medical Center
Education, Certifications and Training
PC-CARE providers must be able to provide weekly or bi-weekly services to individual families; however, there are no education or licensure requirements.
PC-CARE training and certification is a two-phase process that takes place over a total of 30 hours and is offered online. During Phase 1, trainees participate in a 6-hour skill-building workshop to learn about skills specific to the intervention, how to communicate with caregivers about child behavior, and how to observe caregiver-child interactions.
During Phase 2, trainees receive hands-on training that includes group calls and individual calls and results in certification. First, trainees participate in 7 weeks of group calls, each lasting 1 hour and focusing on the content for one weekly session of the program. Trainees have the option to participate in five additional 1-hour calls that cover working with special populations. These optional sessions focus on working with toddlers, children with autism spectrum disorder or intellectual or developmental disabilities, children with problematic sexual behaviors, Latinx families, and children who have experienced trauma.
In the next part of Phase 2, after the group calls are completed, the trainee can begin working with their first client but must participate in an individual call with a PC-CARE trainer prior to each session. Trainees then record all sessions with the client and are provided with up to 9 hours of video review and detailed feedback from the PC-CARE trainer. After successfully finishing all seven sessions with their first client, the trainee can become certified.
Certification requires proof of one case that successfully graduated PC-CARE and proof that the trainee can conduct PC-CARE competently on their own. After completing six PC-CARE cases, trainees can become certified to work as a PC-CARE trainer within their organization.
Program or Service Documentation
Book/Manual/Available documentation used for review
Timmer, S., Hawk, B., Armendariz, L., Boys, D., Allen, C., Johnson, A. & Servín, A. (2022). PC-CARE: Course of treatment manual (2nd ed.). University of California, Davis.
Available languages
The PC-CARE manual is available in English. Other PC-CARE materials are available in English and Spanish.
Other supporting materials
For More Information
Website: https://pcit.ucdavis.edu/pc-care/
Phone: (916) 734-8396
Email: PC-CAREAdminTeam@groups.ucdavis.edu
Note: The details on Dosage; Location; Education, Certifications, and Training; Other Supporting Materials; and For More Information sections above are provided to website users for informational purposes only. This information is not exhaustive and may be subject to change.
| Results of Search and Review | Number of Studies Identified and Reviewed for Parent-Child Care |
|---|---|
| Identified in Search | 4 |
| Eligible for Review | 1 |
| Rated High | 1 |
| Rated Moderate | 0 |
| Rated Low | 0 |
| Reviewed Only for Risk of Harm | 0 |
| Outcome | Effect Size
 and Implied Percentile Effect
|
N of Studies (Findings) | N of Participants | Summary of Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Child well-being: Behavioral and emotional functioning |
0.68
25 |
1 (1) | 39 |
Favorable:
1 No Effect: 0 Unfavorable: 0 |
| Adult well-being: Positive parenting practices |
1.32
40 |
1 (1) | 39 |
Favorable:
1 No Effect: 0 Unfavorable: 0 |
| Adult well-being: Family functioning |
0.29
11 |
1 (1) | 37 |
Favorable:
0 No Effect: 1 Unfavorable: 0 |
Note: For the effect sizes and implied percentile effects reported in the table, a positive number favors the intervention group and a negative number favors the comparison group.
| Outcome | Effect Size
and Implied Percentile Effect
|
N of Studies (Findings) | N of Participants | Summary of Findings |
Months after treatment when outcome measured
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Child well-being: Behavioral and emotional functioning |
0.68
25 |
1 (1) | 39 |
Favorable:
1 No Effect: 0 Unfavorable: 0 |
- |
| Study 14778 - PC-CARE vs. Waitlist Control with Treatment as Usual (Hawk, 2022) | |||||
| Behavior Assessment System for Children – Third Edition: Adaptive Skills (Parent Report) |
0.68
*
25 |
- | 39 | - | 0 |
| Adult well-being: Positive parenting practices |
1.32
40 |
1 (1) | 39 |
Favorable:
1 No Effect: 0 Unfavorable: 0 |
- |
| Study 14778 - PC-CARE vs. Waitlist Control with Treatment as Usual (Hawk, 2022) | |||||
| PC-CARE Coding System: PRIDE Skills |
1.32
*
40 |
- | 39 | - | 0 |
| Adult well-being: Family functioning |
0.29
11 |
1 (1) | 37 |
Favorable:
0 No Effect: 1 Unfavorable: 0 |
- |
| Study 14778 - PC-CARE vs. Waitlist Control with Treatment as Usual (Hawk, 2022) | |||||
| Parenting Stress Index – Fourth Edition, Short Form |
0.29
11 |
- | 37 | - | 0 |
*p <.05
Note: For the effect sizes and implied percentile effects reported in the table, a positive number favors the intervention group and a negative number favors the comparison group. Effect sizes and implied percentile effects were calculated by the Prevention Services Clearinghouse as described in the Handbook of Standards and Procedures, Section 5.10.4 and may not align with effect sizes reported in individual publications.
Only publications with eligible contrasts that met design and execution standards are included in the individual study findings table.
Full citations for the studies shown in the table are available in the "Studies Reviewed" section.
The participant characteristics display is an initial version. We encourage those interested in providing feedback to send suggestions to preventionservices@abtassoc.com.
The table below displays locations, the year, and participant demographics for studies that received moderate or high ratings on design and execution and that reported the information. Participant characteristics for studies with more than one intervention versus comparison group pair that received moderate or high ratings are shown separately in the table. Please note, the information presented here uses terminology directly from the study documents, when available. Studies that received moderate or high ratings on design and execution that did not include relevant participant demographic information would not be represented in this table.
For more information on how Clearinghouse reviewers record the information in the table, please see our Resource Guide on Study Participant Characteristics and Settings.
| Characteristics of the Participants in the Studies with Moderate or High Ratings | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Study Location
|
Study Year
|
Age or Grade-level
|
Race, Ethnicity, Nationality
|
Gender
|
Populations of Interest*
|
Household Socioeconomic Status
|
| Study 14778 - PC-CARE vs. Waitlist Control with Treatment as Usual | ||||||
| Characteristics of the Children and Youth | ||||||
| -- | 2018 | Average age: 5 years; Age range: 2-10 years |
49% Caucasian 18% Latinx 18% African American 14% Asian American/Middle Eastern/Pacific Islander |
71% Male 29% Female |
-- | -- |
| Characteristics of the Adults, Parents, or Caregivers | ||||||
| -- | 2018 | -- |
43% Caucasian 21% Chose not to identify their ethnicity 14% African American 12% Asian America/Middle Eastern/Pacific Islander 10% Latinx |
86% Female | 92% Biological parents, 6% Adoptive parents or legal guardians, 2% Non-relative foster caregivers | -- |
“--” indicates information not reported in the study.
* The information about disabilities is based on initial coding. For more information on how the Clearinghouse recorded disability information for the initial release, please see our Resource Guide on Study Participant Characteristics and Settings. The Clearinghouse is currently seeking consultation from experts, including those with lived experience, and input from the public to enhance and improve the display.
Note: Citations for the documents associated with each 5-digit study number shown in the table can be found in the “Studies Reviewed” section below. Study settings and participant demographics are recorded for all studies that received moderate or high ratings on design and execution and that reported the information. Studies that did not report any information about setting or participant demographics are not displayed. For more information on how participant characteristics are recorded, please see our Resource Guide on Study Participant Characteristics and Settings.
Studies Rated High
Study 14778Hawk, B. N., Timmer, S. G., Armendariz, L. A. F., Boys, D. K., Urquiza, A. J., & Fernandez y Garcia, E. (2022). Improving children's behavior in seven sessions: A randomized controlled trial of Parent-Child Care (PC-CARE) for children aged 2-10 years. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-022-01406-8
This study was conducted in a usual care or practice setting (Handbook Section 6.2.2)Studies Not Eligible for Review
Study 14777
Hawk, B. N., Timmer, S. G., Armendariz, L. A. F., Boys, D. K., & Urquiza, A. J. (2020). Improving behaviors and placement stability for young foster children: An open trial of Parent-Child Care (PC-CARE) in the child welfare system. Children & Youth Services Review, 119, Article 105614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105614
This study is ineligible for review because it does not use an eligible study design (Study Eligibility Criterion 4.1.4).
Study 14779
Timmer, S. G., Hawk, B., Forte, L. A., Boys, D. K., & Urquiza, A. J. (2019). An open trial of Parent-Child Care (PC-CARE) – A 6-week dyadic parenting intervention for children with externalizing behavior problems. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 50(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-018-0814-8
This study is ineligible for review because it does not use an eligible study design (Study Eligibility Criterion 4.1.4).
Study 14780
Timmer, S. G., Hawk, B., Usacheva, M., Armendariz, L., Boys, D. K., & Urquiza, A. J. (2021). The long and the short of it: A comparison of the effectiveness of Parent-Child Care (PC-CARE) and Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 54, 255-265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-021-01257-9
This study is ineligible for review because it does not use an eligible study design (Study Eligibility Criterion 4.1.4).